Objectives: After studying this page you should be able to do the following:
1. List and describe five patterns for organizing the main ideas of a speech.
2. Select and develop an appropriate organization pattern for your informative speech.
3. List and define three types of verbal and nonverbal speech signposts.
2. Select and develop an appropriate organization pattern for your informative speech.
3. List and define three types of verbal and nonverbal speech signposts.
Five Patterns for Organizing Your Main Ideas
Previously, you generated a preliminary plan for your speech by determining whether your central idea had logical divisions, could be supported by several reasons, or could be explained by identifying specific steps. These divisions, reasons, or steps became the main ideas of the body of your speech and the basis for your organization.
Now you are ready to decide which of your main ideas to discuss first, which one second, and so on. You can choose from among five organizational patterns: (1) chronological, (2) topical, (3) spatial, (4) causal, and (5) problem-solution.
Now you are ready to decide which of your main ideas to discuss first, which one second, and so on. You can choose from among five organizational patterns: (1) chronological, (2) topical, (3) spatial, (4) causal, and (5) problem-solution.
Ordering Ideas Chronologically
If you decide that your central idea could be explained best by a number of steps, you will probably organize those steps chronologically. Chronological organization is organization by time; this is, your steps are ordered according to when each step occurred of should occur. Historical speeches and how-to speeches are the two kinds of speeches usually organized chronologically.
In the following outline for speech on the nation's 911 system, the speaker moves forward in time, making his last point the one that remains fresh in the minds of his audience at the end of his speech.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to trace the decline in effectiveness of the 911 emergency system in the United States.
Central Idea: The 911 system had decreased in effectiveness since its inception in 1967,
Main Ideas: I. In 1967, Lyndon Johnson signed legislation creating the 911 system.
II. In 1987, the average 911 response time was 6 minutes.
III. By 1998, the average 911 response time was 12 minutes.
IV. By 2001, 911 was struggling to handle the booming mobile-phone industry.
In another historical speech, this one discussing the factors that led to the literary Renaissance in England, the speaker wants to emphasize the introduction of the printing press as the most important influence. Thus, he organizes the speech backward in time in order to discuss the printing press last.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to list and explain the two forces that prompted the English literary Renaissance.
Central Idea: Two powerful forces for change led to the English literary Renaissance, which began late in the fifteenth century.
Main Ideas: I. 1485: Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, ascended the throne, and began the Tudor dynasty.
II. 1476: William Caxton brought the printing press to England.
Chronological organization then, involved either forward or backward progression, depending on which end of the set of events the speaker intends to emphasize. The element common to both organization schemes is that dates and events are discussed in sequence rather than in random order.
In the following outline for speech on the nation's 911 system, the speaker moves forward in time, making his last point the one that remains fresh in the minds of his audience at the end of his speech.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to trace the decline in effectiveness of the 911 emergency system in the United States.
Central Idea: The 911 system had decreased in effectiveness since its inception in 1967,
Main Ideas: I. In 1967, Lyndon Johnson signed legislation creating the 911 system.
II. In 1987, the average 911 response time was 6 minutes.
III. By 1998, the average 911 response time was 12 minutes.
IV. By 2001, 911 was struggling to handle the booming mobile-phone industry.
In another historical speech, this one discussing the factors that led to the literary Renaissance in England, the speaker wants to emphasize the introduction of the printing press as the most important influence. Thus, he organizes the speech backward in time in order to discuss the printing press last.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to list and explain the two forces that prompted the English literary Renaissance.
Central Idea: Two powerful forces for change led to the English literary Renaissance, which began late in the fifteenth century.
Main Ideas: I. 1485: Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, ascended the throne, and began the Tudor dynasty.
II. 1476: William Caxton brought the printing press to England.
Chronological organization then, involved either forward or backward progression, depending on which end of the set of events the speaker intends to emphasize. The element common to both organization schemes is that dates and events are discussed in sequence rather than in random order.
Organizing Ideas Topically
If your central idea had natural divisions, you can often organize your speech topically. Speeches on such diverse topics as factors to consider when selecting a mountain bike, types of infertility treatments, and the various classes of ham-radio licenses all could reflect topical organization.
Natural divisions are often essentially equal in importance. It may not matter which point you discuss first, second, or third. You can simply arrange your main points as a matter of personal preference. At other times, you may with to emphasize one point more than the others. If so, you will need to consider the principle of recency. As we observed earlier, audiences tend to remember best what they hear last. For example, if your speech is on the various living arrangements available to college students, you may decide to discuss living at home, rooming in a dorm, joining a fraternity or sorority, and renting an apartment. If you want your audience of fellow students to consider living at home because of the savings involved, you would probably discuss that possibility as the fourth and last option. Your speech might have the following structure.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to discuss the pros and cons of four living arrangements for college students.
Central Idea: College students have at least four living arrangements available to them
Main Ideas: I. Living in a dormitory
II. Renting an apartment
III. Joining a fraternity or sorority
IV. Living at home
Another set of circumstances may dictate a particular order of the main points in your speech. If you main points range from simple to complicated, it makes sense to arrange them in order of complexity, progressing from the simple to the more complex. If, for example, you were to explain to your audience how to compile a family health profile and history, you might want to begin with the most easily accessible source and proceed to the more involved.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to compile a family health profile and history.
Central Idea: Compiling a family health profile and history can be accomplished with the help of three sources.
Main Ideas: I. Elderly relatives
II. Old hospital records and death certificates
III. National health registries
Natural divisions are often essentially equal in importance. It may not matter which point you discuss first, second, or third. You can simply arrange your main points as a matter of personal preference. At other times, you may with to emphasize one point more than the others. If so, you will need to consider the principle of recency. As we observed earlier, audiences tend to remember best what they hear last. For example, if your speech is on the various living arrangements available to college students, you may decide to discuss living at home, rooming in a dorm, joining a fraternity or sorority, and renting an apartment. If you want your audience of fellow students to consider living at home because of the savings involved, you would probably discuss that possibility as the fourth and last option. Your speech might have the following structure.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to discuss the pros and cons of four living arrangements for college students.
Central Idea: College students have at least four living arrangements available to them
Main Ideas: I. Living in a dormitory
II. Renting an apartment
III. Joining a fraternity or sorority
IV. Living at home
Another set of circumstances may dictate a particular order of the main points in your speech. If you main points range from simple to complicated, it makes sense to arrange them in order of complexity, progressing from the simple to the more complex. If, for example, you were to explain to your audience how to compile a family health profile and history, you might want to begin with the most easily accessible source and proceed to the more involved.
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to compile a family health profile and history.
Central Idea: Compiling a family health profile and history can be accomplished with the help of three sources.
Main Ideas: I. Elderly relatives
II. Old hospital records and death certificates
III. National health registries
Arranging Ideas Spatially
When you say, "As you enter the room, the table is to your right, the easy chair to your left, and the kitchen door straight ahead," you are organizing your ideas spatially. A speaker using spatial organization arranges items according to their location and direction. It does not usually matter whether the speaker choose to progress up or down, east or west, forward or back, as long as ideas are developed in a logical order. If the speaker skips up, down, over, and back, he or she will only confuse the audience rather than paint a distinct word picture for it.
Speeches on such diverse subjects as the Heard Museum in Phoenix, the travels of Robert Louis Stevenson, and the makeup of an atom can all be organized spatially. Here is a sample outline for the first of those topics:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to list and describe the four permanent exhibits of the Heard Museum.
Central Idea: The Heard Museum of Phoenix has four large permanent exhibits on Native American anthropology and culture.
Main Ideas: I. Ethnological and historical materials of Southwestern Native Americans
II. Basketry
III. Jewelry and pottery
IV. Kachina dolls
The organization of this outline is spatial, progressing from the front entrance through the Heard Museum.
Speeches on such diverse subjects as the Heard Museum in Phoenix, the travels of Robert Louis Stevenson, and the makeup of an atom can all be organized spatially. Here is a sample outline for the first of those topics:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to list and describe the four permanent exhibits of the Heard Museum.
Central Idea: The Heard Museum of Phoenix has four large permanent exhibits on Native American anthropology and culture.
Main Ideas: I. Ethnological and historical materials of Southwestern Native Americans
II. Basketry
III. Jewelry and pottery
IV. Kachina dolls
The organization of this outline is spatial, progressing from the front entrance through the Heard Museum.
Organizing Ideas to Show Cause and Effect
A speech organized to show cause and effect may first identify a situation and then discuss the effects that result from it (cause - effect). Or the speech may present a situation and then seek its causes (effect - cause). As the recency principle would suggest, the cause-effect pattern emphasizes the effects; the effect-cause pattern emphasizes the causes.
In the following example, Vonda organizes her speech according to cause-effect, discussing the cause (widespread adult illiteracy) as her first main idea, and its effects (poverty and social costs) as her second and third main ideas:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to identify two effects of adult illiteracy.
Central Idea: Adult illiteracy affects everyone.
Main Ideas: I. (Cause): Adult illiteracy is widespread in America today.
II. (Effect): Adult illiterates often live in poverty.
III. (Effect): Adult illiteracy is costly to society.
In contrast, Laurel organizes her speech on writing wills according to an effect-cause pattern, discussion the effect (people not writing wills) as her first main idea and its causes (having to face mortality and being ignorant of how to prepare a will) as her second and third main ideas:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to explain and counter the reasons people don't write wills.
Central Ideas: People fail to prepare wills for several reasons.
Main Ideas: I. (Effect): People are hesitant to write wills.
II. (Cause): Writing a will brings people face to face with their own mortality.
III. (Cause): Many people don't know how to prepare a will.
In the following example, Vonda organizes her speech according to cause-effect, discussing the cause (widespread adult illiteracy) as her first main idea, and its effects (poverty and social costs) as her second and third main ideas:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to identify two effects of adult illiteracy.
Central Idea: Adult illiteracy affects everyone.
Main Ideas: I. (Cause): Adult illiteracy is widespread in America today.
II. (Effect): Adult illiterates often live in poverty.
III. (Effect): Adult illiteracy is costly to society.
In contrast, Laurel organizes her speech on writing wills according to an effect-cause pattern, discussion the effect (people not writing wills) as her first main idea and its causes (having to face mortality and being ignorant of how to prepare a will) as her second and third main ideas:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to explain and counter the reasons people don't write wills.
Central Ideas: People fail to prepare wills for several reasons.
Main Ideas: I. (Effect): People are hesitant to write wills.
II. (Cause): Writing a will brings people face to face with their own mortality.
III. (Cause): Many people don't know how to prepare a will.
Organizing Ideas by Problem and Solution
If you want to discuss why a problem exists or what its effects are, you will probably organize your speech according to cause and effect, as discussed in the previous section. However, if you want to emphasize how best to solve the problem, you will probably use a problem-solution pattern of organization.
Like causes and effects, problems and solutions can be discussed in either order. If you speak to an audience that is already fairly aware of a problem but uncertain how to solve it, you will probably discuss the problem first and then the solution(s). as in this example:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to list and explain three ways in which crime on university campuses can be reduced.
Central Idea: Crimes on university campuses can be reduced by implementing three safety measures.
Main Ideas: I. (Problem): Crimes against both persons and property have increased dramatically on college campuses over the last few years.
II. (Solution): Crimes could be reduced by stricter enforcement of the Student Right to Know and Campus Security Acts.
III. (Solution): Crimes could be reduced by assigning student identification numbers that are different from students' Social Security Numbers.
IV. (Solution): Crimes could be reduced by converting campus buildings to an integrated security system requiring key cards for admittance.
If your audience knows about an action or program that has been implemented but does not know the reasons for its implementation, you might select instead a solution-problem pattern of organization. In the following example, the speaker knows that her listeners are already aware of a new business-school partnership program in their community but believes that they may be unclear about why it has been established:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to explain how business-school partnership programs can help solve two of the major problems facing our public schools today.
Central Idea: Business-school partnership programs can help alleviate at least two of the problems faced by public schools today.
Main Ideas: I. (Solution): In a business-school partnership, local businesses provide volunteers, financial support, and in-kind contributions to public schools.
II. (Problem): Many public schools can no longer afford special programs and fine-arts programs.
III. (Problem): Many public schools have no resources to fund enrichment materials and opportunities.
Like causes and effects, problems and solutions can be discussed in either order. If you speak to an audience that is already fairly aware of a problem but uncertain how to solve it, you will probably discuss the problem first and then the solution(s). as in this example:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to list and explain three ways in which crime on university campuses can be reduced.
Central Idea: Crimes on university campuses can be reduced by implementing three safety measures.
Main Ideas: I. (Problem): Crimes against both persons and property have increased dramatically on college campuses over the last few years.
II. (Solution): Crimes could be reduced by stricter enforcement of the Student Right to Know and Campus Security Acts.
III. (Solution): Crimes could be reduced by assigning student identification numbers that are different from students' Social Security Numbers.
IV. (Solution): Crimes could be reduced by converting campus buildings to an integrated security system requiring key cards for admittance.
If your audience knows about an action or program that has been implemented but does not know the reasons for its implementation, you might select instead a solution-problem pattern of organization. In the following example, the speaker knows that her listeners are already aware of a new business-school partnership program in their community but believes that they may be unclear about why it has been established:
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to explain how business-school partnership programs can help solve two of the major problems facing our public schools today.
Central Idea: Business-school partnership programs can help alleviate at least two of the problems faced by public schools today.
Main Ideas: I. (Solution): In a business-school partnership, local businesses provide volunteers, financial support, and in-kind contributions to public schools.
II. (Problem): Many public schools can no longer afford special programs and fine-arts programs.
III. (Problem): Many public schools have no resources to fund enrichment materials and opportunities.
Developing Verbal and Nonverbal Signposts
Once you have organized your research, you have a logically ordered, fairly complete plan for your speech. But if you tried to deliver the speech at this point, you would find yourself frequently groping for some way to get from one point to the next. Your audience might become frustrated or even confused by your hesitation and awardness. Your next organization task is to develop signposts - words and gestures that allow you to move smoothly from one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationship between ideas and emphasizing important points. Two types of signposts can serve as glue to hold your speech together: verbal and nonverbal.
Verbal Transitions
Nonverbal Transitions
Nonverbal transitions can occur n several ways, sometimes alone and sometimes in combination with verbal transitions. A change in facial expression, a pause, an altered pitch or speaking rate, or a movement all may indicate a transition.
For example, a speaker talking about the value of cardiopulmonary resuscitation began his speech with a powerful andecdote of a man suffering a heart attack at a party. No one knew how to help, and the man died. The speaker than looked up from his notes and paused, while maintaining eye contact with his audience. His next words were "The real tragedy of Bill Jorgen's death was that it should not have happened." His pause, as well as the words that followed, indicated a transition into the body of the speech.
Like this speaker, most good speakers use a combination of verbal and nonverbal transitions to move from one point to another through their speeches.
For example, a speaker talking about the value of cardiopulmonary resuscitation began his speech with a powerful andecdote of a man suffering a heart attack at a party. No one knew how to help, and the man died. The speaker than looked up from his notes and paused, while maintaining eye contact with his audience. His next words were "The real tragedy of Bill Jorgen's death was that it should not have happened." His pause, as well as the words that followed, indicated a transition into the body of the speech.
Like this speaker, most good speakers use a combination of verbal and nonverbal transitions to move from one point to another through their speeches.